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Consider how high God is above the world! Yet if one enters the synagogue and stands behind a pillar and prays in a whisper, the Holy One, blessed be He, listens to that prayer.
The Age of Reason
As the 17th century drew to a close, a new wave of intellectual and philosophical interests captivated Europe and brought the world out of the Dark Ages. The “Age of Enlightenment,” also known as the “Age of Reason,” emphasized human intellect and the ability to govern thoughts and beliefs through reason. The movement inspired many of the great revolutions of the 18th and 19th century; and challenged some of the most dogmatic and influential institutions. The impact of science and philosophy stretched the ideals of believers and theologians. Such regard for the natural world and the potential of human ingenuity called into question the authenticity of special revelation; and at times, even the involvement of God in creation.
As early as the 13th century, the Catholic Church struggled to engage opposing monotheistic views that did not regard the New Testament as authoritative. Since the days of Thomas Aquinas,[1] Christianity had become more accepting of the notion that knowledge about the divine could be obtained through careful consideration of nature and reason. Aquinas’ persuasion was effective in its time, providing Christian apologists with significant fodder to engage opposing theologies on common grounds. However, the Age of Reason posed new challenges that even tested the generative nature of natural theology.
One such movement that evolved out of the Renaissance and the Reformation was Deism; a view founded by the Englishman, Lord Herbert of Cherbury (1583-1648), who sought to explain the Bible and create a theology based on the rules of logic and science.[2] Deism upheld the belief in a supreme being; however, its adherents viewed the creator as a distant deity who remained uninvolved with human affairs and determined not to intervene with the laws of nature. The view raised serious issues from a theological perspective, primarily calling into question the validity of special revelation and the Christian doctrine of providence.
Judaism was not immune to this wave of enlightenment either, as controversial ideas about the Divine gave way to new challenges for traditional communities. One such philosophy birthed out of the reformation was pantheism, a belief that all of the created order encompasses the immanent God. In the west, pantheism was formalized based on the work of the 17th century Jewish philosopher Baruch Spinoza. He developed highly controversial ideas regarding the authenticity of the Hebrew Bible and the Divine nature, and was effectively excluded from Jewish society at age 23, when the local synagogue issued a herem[3] against him. Pantheism taught that all of forms of reality may be considered modes or even identical with the divine being. Suffice it to say, a number of Spinoza’s books were included in the Catholic Church’s Index of Forbidden Books. Clearly, these two controversial positions, deism and pantheism, were influential enough to pose a threat to the traditional institutions of the day.
Although there is little mainstream hype to bolster these positions today, both deism and pantheism left a significant impression on how God is viewed, particularly in regard to God’s relationship with the world. For example, the deistic notion that a supreme being would bring the universe into existence and let mankind function as a mechanism is not uncommon even among modern believers. However, such notions call into the question the character of God himself. As the Protestant Theologian, Millard Erickson contends in his third edition of Christian Theology: “The argument, if it is to be an argument, must establish not only that God exists, but also that he is of such a character that we may reasonably expect a revelation from him, that he has actually done so, and that the record of this revelation is found in the Bible.”[4] According to Erickson’s argument, the idea of an absent deity presents an omniscient and omnipotent creator compelled by nothing more than boredom and impulse. For what reason would such a god invest so much wisdom into a universe so precisely orchestrated? Such a god would be no god at all! Therefore, one must consider that if an intelligent creator does exist, then the motives of that creator must represent the apex of intentional activity. The world was planned for a purpose; and that purpose is communicated to mankind through the Bible.
In his book, The Science of God, Jewish author and physicist Dr. Gerald Schroeder observes divine providence in the fact that the physical, chemical, and biological laws of nature are so fine-tuned that their existence could not have occurred by chance.[5] What else could have sustained their ongoing and perfect balance except for a Supreme Creator who continually maintains the universe by His emanating presence? As the author notes: “God’s role in nature is made manifest in the laws of nature. The universe is filled with material munificence.”[6] Dr. Schroeder’s point is well taken: The world follows its natural course in keeping with its perfect and delicate composition. Behind it all is the reason for its capable abundance.
The Bible does not reveal the secret or even the process of creation; such knowledge is a mystery that can only be comprehended through God’s wisdom. However, the Bible does go to great lengths to assure its reader that the whole of creation is an emanation of divine wisdom: “By wisdom the LORD founded the earth. By understanding He established the heavens (Prov. 3:19 NKJV).” According to the Bible, the whole of creation, the physical order, is the illustration of God’s wisdom. Pantheism came close to grasping this concept. However, like Deism, Pantheism falls short by misappropriating the role and identity of the creator; as Dr. Schroeder further explains:
“[Pantheism] stops short of the crucial final step. It sees the universe as an integrated whole, a unity operating through the diverse laws of nature. This is a brilliant insight. But then it claims that these laws and forces active in the universe are all that there is. If there is a god, it is these laws. The difference between pantheism and monotheism is that biblically, the laws of nature are understood as a projected manifestation of an infinite wisdom that transcends the physical universe, within which the physical universe dwells, and of which the physical universe is composed.”[7]
Ironically, the essential object of pantheistic philosophy provides the most compelling evidence of God’s ongoing activity in the universe. Such positions are clearly voiced by the early disciples of Yeshua:
“For since the creation of the world His invisible attributes are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made, even His eternal power and Godhead, so that they are without excuse (Rm. 1:20).”
Not only is God’s wisdom manifest in his creative activity, but the book of Proverbs goes so far as to express God’s nurturing care for wisdom itself: “It is wisdom calling, understanding raising her voice… The LORD created me at the beginning of his course as the first of his works of old (Prov. 8:1, 22 JPS).” If the Creator of the universe was so intimately invested with knowledge and wisdom in its own right, how much more would God’s provisional care manifest in the natural order? Such rationale was considered fundamental to the theology of antiquity that rabbinic scholars went to great lengths to communicate its truth in amplified translations of the Bible known as Targums:[8] “From the beginning with wisdom the Memra[9] of the Lord created and perfected the heavens and the earth.”[10]
At the heart of the Biblical message, is the relationship between God and his creation, God and His creatures, and most importantly, God and human beings. The purpose of Scripture is not to provide a comprehensive account of the creative process, but rather, to communicate that God, in his wisdom, created the natural world with a plan. Namely, to entrust humanity with the mission of bringing about the fulfillment of creation (Gen. 1:28). Special revelation was made necessary by sin,[11] in order to communicate that although mankind had failed its mission, people could come back to God through repentance, and that God has enabled him to do so through the redeeming work of Messiah. In view of what is communicated in the Bible, it is difficult to reconcile the Deistic view of God with that of a Creator who longs to redeem the members of his creation. It is axiomatic that Scripture defines God as willfully active in human affairs and notably present within creation. This is not only true of God’s initial act of bringing the world into existence with humans at the forefront of his creative work (Gen. 1:27-31); but it is also true of God’s ongoing provision for humanity and sustenance for the natural world (Ps. 104).
The Gospels express the ideals of divine providence through the teachings of Yeshua: “Are not two sparrows sold for a copper coin? And not one of them falls to the ground apart from your Father’s will… you are of more value than many sparrows. (Mat. 10:29-30 NKJV).” The Master’s statement, and many others, hearken to the fact that God is personally and intimately involved with the happenings of the created order and attentive to the needs of His people. Indeed, God has endowed humanity with the capacity to comprehend his spiritual mission through communicable attributes founded in divine wisdom. However, it is also essential to note that people are incapable of exercising these faculties without utilizing the provisions with which God sustains the universe. This awareness mandates a critical response: Human beings ought to recognize their Creator and navigate their conduct in assurance of God’s sustaining providence and ongoing activity in human life. The Psalmist writes: “The eyes of all look expectantly to You, and You give them their food in due season. You open Your hand and satisfy the desire of every living thing (Ps. 145:15-16).” The message of the Psalm is quite clear: “Even animals instinctively rely upon God for their sustenance, how much more so should human beings recognize the beneficence of his Maker!”[12] Thus, the prophets express the conduct of the righteous: “The just shall live by his faith (Hab. 2:4).”
Among the many ways that people are capable of expressing ongoing trust in God’s nearness to creation is through obedience and prayer. Obedience demonstrates love for God, [13] awareness of his proximity in relation to human affairs, and assurance that God’s plan for humanity is just, righteous, and true. Prayer not only acknowledges that God is near to His creation, but that he listens when His people call on him in truth.[14] The Bible repeatedly states that God is a personal entity, and that he listens and responds to the praise, petitions, and thanksgivings of his people. Yeshua himself exuded a life of prayer,[15] and he admonished his disciples to pray at all times and with persistence.[16] Years later, his brother and disciple would remind the early believers of the dictum that God desires the prayers of the righteous:[17] “The prayer of the righteous is powerful and affective (James. 5:16).” Clearly, if the righteous are capable of impacting the cosmos with their prayer, there is little room for God to remove himself from creation.
For what Deism and Pantheism accomplished in their time, certainly deserves its place in human history. If nothing else, their innovative natures challenged and continue to inspire theologians to think critically about the prominence of God’s activity in the world. Like all positions that stimulate the mind and test traditional dogmas, Judaism is stronger for having encountered them. However, the notion of a divine entity being far removed from the created order, or the notion that the created order can sustain itself apart from God, is clearly antithetical to the message of Scripture and the perceivable qualities of nature.
The Besorah of John places special emphasis on God’s on-going role in nature through the agent of his “Memra.” The “word” is expressive of the Divine will, and the Gospel of John identifies this agent as Messiah:
“In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. He was with God in the beginning. Through him all things were made; without him nothing was made that has been made. In him was life, and that life was the light of all mankind (Jn. 1:1-4).”
Similar terminology can be found in Psalm 33:6, and as previously mentioned, the ancient Targums. The writer of Hebrews notes the eminence of Messiah, and by virtue the Word, as the “radiance of God’s glory and the express image of His character, [he] sustains all things by his powerful word (Heb. 1:3).” When taken in view of the broad scope of creation, it becomes overwhelmingly apparent that there isn’t a single fiber of creation that isn’t expressive of God’s nature! All of creation declare God’s glory.[18]
[1] Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), was an influential Italian philosopher who made significant contributions in the study of Natural Theology.
[2] Jewish Encyclopedia. Volume 5, 1463.
[3] חֵרֶם is the highest ecclesiastical censure in the Jewish community. It is the total exclusion of a person from the Jewish community. Baruch Spinoza is arguably the most famous case in which a herem was issued.
[4] Millard J. Erickson, Christian Theology (Grand Rapids, M.I.: Baker Academic, 2013), 17.
[5] Gerald L. Schroeder, The Science of God (New York, N.Y.: The Free Press, 1997), 177.
[6] Ibid. 179.
[7] Ibid. 178.
[8] Targums are rabbinic translations of the Hebrew Tanakh (Old Testament) into Aramaic. They were originally transmitted orally to the predominantly Aramaic speaking Jewish society of the Second Temple Era. Their contents were committed to writing in the middle of the first century. Preserved in its redaction were the elucidations of the Sages, reflecting the common interpretations of Scripture in that era and sometime prior.
[9] Literally, “The Word,” in the sense of the creative or directive word or speech of God manifesting His power in the world of matter or mind; a term used especially in the Targum as a substitute for “the Lord” when an anthropomorphic expression is to be avoided (Jewish Encyclopedia, see Bibliography). C.f. John 1:1-3.
[10] Targum Neofiti to Genesis 1:1.
[11] Galatians 3:19; cf. Romans 7:7.
[12] Radak commentary to Psalm 145:15. RaDaK, Hebrew acronym for David Kimhi (1160-1235), medieval rabbi, biblical commentator, and philosopher.
[13] John 14:15; 1 John 5:3.
[14] Psalm 145:18.
[15] Luke 5:16.
[16] Luke 18:1-8; cf. Ephesians 6:18.
[17] Babylonian Talmud, Yevamot 64a.
[18] Psalm 19:1
